Functional theory, volunteer, motivation, altruism, reward
This study examines the relationship between individual volunteers’ functional preferences and their ratings of a variety of non-monetary rewards. Participants, 95% of whom had volunteer experience, completed the Volunteer Functions Inventory (VFI) and rated 31 potential rewards. The results suggest that volunteers have relatively similar reward preferences, despite distinct differences in their functional preferences. Further, gender and volunteer experience have little impact on an individual’s ratings of specific rewards. Also some rewards have almost universal appeal. Finally, some rewards appear to be enjoyed less than initially expected, suggesting that volunteers may find themselves disappointed. In summary, the benefits of assessing volunteer functional needs may not offset the cost of gathering this data. In most situations, nonprofits may be best-served by offering identical, highly rated rewards to all their volunteers, since the top items have virtually universal appeal and tend to be relatively inexpensive as well.
Full Text : PDF
- Allen, N. J., & Rushton, J. P. (1983). Personality characteristics of community mental health volunteers: A review. Journal of Voluntary Action Research, 12(1), 36-49.
- Auslander, G. K., & Litwin, H. (1988). Sociability and patterns of participation: Implications for social service policy. Journal of Voluntary Action Research, 17(2), 25-37.
- Bartol, K. M., & Srivastava, A. (2002). Encouraging knowledge sharing: The role of organizational reward systems. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 9(1), 64.
- Batson, C. D., Ahmad, N., & Tsang, J. (2002). Four motives for community involvement. Journal of Social Issues, 58(3), 429-445.
- Benabou, R., & Tirole, J. (2003). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. The Review of Economic Studies, 70(244), 489.
- Bierhoff, H. B. (1987). Donor and recipient: Social development, social interaction and evolutionary processes. European Journal of Social Psychology, 17, 113-130.
- Cameron, J., & Pierce, W. D. (1994). Reinforcement, reward, and intrinsic motivation: A meta-analysis. Educational Research, 64, 363-423.
- Chapman, J. G., & Morley, R. (1999). Collegiate service learning: Motives underlying volunteerism and satisfaction with volunteer service. Journal of Prevention and Intervention in the Community, 18, 19-33.
- Clary, E. G., & Snyder, M. (1991). A functional analysis of altruism and prosocial behavior: the case of volunteerism, Review of personality and social psychology (Vol. 12, pp. 119-148). London: Sage.
- Clary, E. G., & Snyder, M. (1999). The motivations to volunteer: Theoretical and practical considerations. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 8(5), 156-159.
- Clary, E. G., Snyder, M., Ridge, R. D., & Copeland, J. (1998). Understanding and assessing the motivations of volunteers: A functional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1516.
- Clary, E. G., Snyder, M., & Stukas, A. A. (1998). Service-learning and psychology: Lessons from the psychology of volunteers' motivations. In R. G. Bringle & D. K. Duffy (Eds.), With service in mind: Concepts and models for service-learning in psychology (pp. 35-50). Washington D.C.: American Association of Higher Education.
- Cnaan, R. A., & Cascio, T. A. (1999). Performance and commitment: Issues in management of volunteers in human service organizations. Journal of Social Service Research, 24(3-4), 1-37.
- Crewson, P. E. (1997). Public-service motivation: Building empirical evidence of incidence and effect. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 7(4), 499.
- Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6), 627.
- Dulebohn, J. H., Murray, B., & Sun, M. H. (2000). Selection among employer-sponsored pension plans: The role of individual differences. Personnel Psychology, 53(2), 405-432.
- Ferrari, J. R., Dobis, K., Kardaras, E. I., Michna, D. M., Wagner, J. M., Sierawski, S., et al. (1999). Community volunteerism among college students and professional psychologists: Does taking them to the streets make-a-difference? Journal of Prevention and Intervention in the Community, 18(1/2), 35-51.
- Fletcher, T. D., & Major, D. A. (2004). Medical students' motivations to volunteer: An examination of the nature of gender differences. Sex Roles, 51(1/2), 109.
- Gabris, G. T., & Simo, G. (1995). Public sector motivation as an independent variable affecting career decisions. Public Personnel Management, 24(1), 33-51.
- Hahn, J. J., Butz, K. P., Gavin, J. G., Mills, R. S., & Welter, C. J. (2004). Recognizing professional and volunteer activities. Association of Operating Room Nurses. AORN Journal, 79(5), 1006.
- Hardin, G. (1977). The limits of altruism: An ecologist's view of survival. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
- Katz, D. (1960). The functional approach to the study of attitudes. Public Opinion Quarterly, 24, 163-204.
- Klubnik, J. P. (1995). Rewarding and recognizing employees. Chicago: Irwin Professional Publishing.
- Lazear, E. P. (2000a). Performance pay and productivity. The American Economic Review, 90(5), 1346.
- Lazear, E. P. (2000b). The power of incentives. The American Economic Review, 90(2), 410.
- Lievens, F., & Highhouse, S. (2003). The relation of instrumental and symbolic attributes to a company's attractiveness as an employer. Personnel Psychology, 56(1), 75-102.
- Merchant, K. A., Stede, W. A. V. d., & Zheng, L. (2003). Disciplinary constraints on the advancement of knowledge: The case of organizational incentive systems. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 28(2,3), 251.
- Okun, M. A., Barr, A., & Herzog, A. R. (1998). Motivation to volunteer by older adults: A test of competiing measurement models. Psychology and Aging, 13, 608-621.
- Okun, M. A., & Schultz, A. (2003). Age and motives for volunteering: Testing hypotheses derived from socioemotional selectivity theory. Psychology and Aging, 18(2), 231-239.
- Perry, J. L., & Wise, L. R. (1990). The motivational bases of public service. Public Administration Review, 50(3), 367.
- Piderit, S. K. (2000). Rethinking resistance and recognizing ambivalence: A multidimensional view of attitudes toward an organizational change. Academy of Management Review, 25(4), 783-794.
- Piliavin, J. A., Dovidio, J. A., Gaertner, J. F., & Clark, S. L. (1981). Emergency intervention. New York: Academic Press.
- Pratkanis, A. R., & Turner, M. E. (1994). Of what value is a job-attitude: A sociocognitive analysis. Human Relations, 47(12), 1545-1576.
- Schervish, P. G., & Havens, J. J. (2002). The Boston area diary study and the moral citizenship of care. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 13(1), 47.
- Simmons, R. G., Klein, S. D., & Simmons, R. L. (1977). The gift of life: The social and psychological impact of organ transplantation. New York: Wiley.
- Simmons, R. G., Marine, S. K., & Simmons, R. L. (1987). The gift of life: The effect of organ transplantation on individual family dynamics. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
- Smith, D. H. (1994). Determinants of voluntary association participation and volunteering: A literature-review. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 23(3), 243-263.
- Smith, M., Bruner, J., & White, R. (1956). Opinions and personality. New York: Wiley.
- Snyder, M., & DeBono, K. G. (1985). Appeals to image and claims about quality: Understanding the psychology of advertising. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49(3), 586-597.
- Spitzer, D. R. (1996). Power rewards: Rewards that really motivate. Management Review, 85(5), 45.
- Switzer, C. L., Switzer, G. E., Stukas, A. A., & Baker, C. E. (1999). Medical student motivations to volunteer: Gender differences and comparisons to other volunteers. Journal of Prevention and Intervention in the Community, 18, 53-64.
- Titmuss, R. M. (1971). The gift relationship: From human blood to social policy. New York: Vintage.
- Volunteering in the United States (2008). US Census Bureau. Retrieved June 8, 2009, from the World Wide Web: http://www.bls.gov/news.release/volun.nr0.htm
- Wilkinson, H. E., Orth, C. D., & Benfari, R. C. (1986). Motivation theories: An integrated operational model. S.A.M. Advanced Management Journal, 51(4), 24.